IBF Methodology Main | Resilience Portal

RCOF	Main Crop	season and crop calendar (for seasonal forecast)	Hazard affecting crops		Data source
ASEANCOF	Rice/Corn/Palm Oil	Rice
		June to August (JJA): Plant, Mid-season, Harvest December to February (DJF): Plant, Harvest	Plant	Above normal temperature - Wet type (summer season). Prolonged temperature elevation reduces seed germination potential and leads to poor germination rate and seedling vigor. The optimum growth temperature of rice at the seedling stage is 25–28 °C. Heat stress (42–45 °C) at the seedling stage results in increased water loss, withered and yellow leaves, impaired seedling and root growth, and even death of seedlings (Xu et al., 2021). Below normal temperature - Dry type (dry season). Low temperatures may occur in winter in the highland areas of northern Thailand and northern Vietnam. Germination under low temperatures stress can cause slow growth and reduce seedling vigour. Low temperature stress at the seedling stage leads to seedling mortality and thereby results in less number of seedlings, reduced tillering. Below normal precipitaion - Drought negatively affects germination process through inhibition of water uptake and reduces the strength of seedling (Vibhuti et al., 2015)	The impact of high-temperature stress on rice: Challenges and solutions - ScienceDirect
					Improving the resilience of rice seedlings to low temperature stress through seed priming - ScienceDirect
					Seed germination and seedling growth parameters of rice (Oryza sativa) varieties as affected by salt and water stress \| The Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences (icar.org.in)
			Mid-season	Above normal temperature - 1. The results from this analysis showed that the reductions in rice yield can largely be explained by the increase in seasonal mean temperature in the countries (Chun et al., 2016); 2. El Niño is expected to prolong the warm, dry weather in mid-2023 into mid-2024, causing plants to experience heat stress, which impacts growth and ultimately, the yield. Above normal precipitation - High values of rainy days may therefore represent an excess rainfall signal, where submergence and physical flood damage reduce yield, in particular if occurring during critical crop development periods (Bowden et al., 2023). Below normal precipitation - Low precipitation may lead to reduced river flow and exploitation of groundwater which can lead to salinization of the soil and affect rice yields. (Nguyen and Hoa., 2020; Yang et al., 2022; Tarolli et al., 2024).	Assessing rice productivity and adaptation strategies for Southeast Asia under climate change through multi-scale crop modeling - ScienceDirect
					2023/53 "Rice Production and Food Security in Southeast Asia under Threat from El Niño" by Elyssa Ludher and Paul Teng - ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute
					Identifying links between monsoon variability and rice production in India through machine learning \| Scientific Reports (nature.com)
					(PDF) Saline soils and crop production in coastal zones of Vietnam: features, strategies for amelioration and management (researchgate.net)
					Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering: iScience (cell.com)
					Sustainability \| Free Full-Text \| Rice Production in Farmer Fields in Soil Salinity Classified Areas in Khon Kaen, Northeast Thailand (mdpi.com)
			Harvest	Above normal temperature - High temperature delays rice harvest time and reduces grain filling rate (Jumiatun et al., 2016). Below normal precipitation - Low precipitaiton can induce drought which may delay rice heading date, which in turn affects the rice harvest index and output of farmland (Homma et al., 2004; Zhao et al., 2024).	Morphological, Physiological and Yield Responses of Some Rice Varieties (Oryza sativa L.) as Exposed Under High Temperature in Indonesia (scialert.net)
					Transcription factor OsWRKY11 induces rice heading at low concentrations but inhibits rice heading at high concentrations - Zhao - 2024 - Journal of Integrative Plant Biology - Wiley Online Library
					https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378429003001941
		Corn
		June to August (JJA) : Plant, Mid-season, Harvest December to February (DJF): Plant, Mid-season, Harvest	Plant	Above normal temperature - Heat stress can induce oxidative stress in corn seedlings and may cause abnormal crop growth (Gong et al., 1997). Below normal precipitation - If low precipitation causes the soil to be too dry at the time of planting or shortly after planting, corn seeds will germinate at different times.	CSIRO PUBLISHING \| Functional Plant Biology
					Uneven Emergence in Corn (NCR344) (wisc.edu)
			Mid-season	Above normal temperature - Corn is particularly sensitive to high temperatures before and during flowering, especially pollination, high temperatures during maize pollination limit kernel number (Schoper et al., 1987). Above normal precipitation - Extreme rainfall may reduce nitrogen fertilizer levels in the soil, which in turn affects corn growth (Shahhosseini et al., 2019). Below normal precipitation - Low precipitation may lead to drought stress, which in turn reduces corn yields (Bheemanahalli et al., 2022).	Pollen Viability, Pollen Shedding, and Combining Ability for Tassel Heat Tolerance in Maize1 - Schoper - 1987 - Crop Science - Wiley Online Library
					Maize yield and nitrate loss prediction with machine learning algorithms - IOPscience
					Effects of post-flowering heat and drought stresses on physiology, yield, and quality in maize (Zea mays L.) - ScienceDirect
			Harvest	Above normal temperature - High temperatures can negatively affect corn harvesting by disrupting the plant's phenology, reducing pollen viability, impacting the female component of the plant, altering biomass allocation, and reducing kernel number and weight. These factors contribute to a decrease in overall yield (Lizaso et al., 2018). Above/ Below normal precipitation - Changes in precipitation patterns, especially those leading to extremes of wet or dry conditions, can alter the climate-yield relationship and potentially increase the risk of maize yield reduction. This could be due to issues such as waterlogging, soil erosion, or other stressors that excessive precipitation might bring (Feng et al., 2021).	Impact of high temperatures in maize: Phenology and yield components - ScienceDirect
					Changes in climate-crop yield relationships affect risks of crop yield reduction - ScienceDirect
		Palm Oil
		June to August (JJA): Below average & average Harvest, Above average Harvest, Peak Harvest December to February (DJF): Below average & average Harvest, Above average Harvest	Above average Harvest	Above normal temperatur, / Below normal precipitation (JJA) - When Temperatures become too high, and drought risk will increase, so(Li et al. 2009;Paterson et al. 2015, 2017). Above normal temperatur - Warmer weather initially will enhance the yield. However, as the climate becomes warmer, the oil palm yield will decline. (Khong, et al, 2023) , Below normal precipitation (DJF) - In Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia, El Niño can seriously damage agriculture, as the warming of Pacific waters disrupts rainfall frequency, leading to severe drought conditions.NOAA’s expectations of a moderate-to-strong El Niño will put the market’s attention on the region’s weather, especially during late fall-early winter, when conditions are most critical.	https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=fe82d941-08f9-38e7-b693-f6ce7b568dc6
					Future climate effects on suitability for growth of oil palms in Malaysia and Indonesia
					https://www.fastmarkets.com/insights/palm-oil-price-trends/
			Below average & average Harvest	Below normal precipitation (JJA)- Increasing frequency of drought has caused declines of 10–30% in Palm Oil production (Al-Amin et al, 2010). Above normal temperatur (JJA) - Rising temperatures disrupt the delicate balance necessary for optimal growth, while altered precipitation patterns and extreme weather events impact water availability and nutrient uptake by the oil palm trees (Verheye, 2010, Sarkar et al., 2020). Above normal temperatur, Below normal precipitation (JJA, DJF) - Palm Oil yields are projected to decrease by 30% should temperature increase 2°C above optimum and rainfall decreases by 10% (Paterson et al., 2015). Insufficient water supply during dry periods can induce water stress, impair growth, and compromise oil palm productivity (Henson et al., 2005, Ahluwalia et al., 2021) Below normal precipitation (DJF) - Insufficient water supply during dry periods can induce water stress, impair growth, and compromise oil palm productivity (Henson et al., 2005, Ahluwalia et al., 2021)	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2452263523000022
					Future climate effects on suitability for growth of oil palms in Malaysia and Indonesia
			Peak Harvest.	Above normal temperatur, Above normal precipitation (JJA) - The higher precipitation/floods of can decreased the production and quality of crude palm oil. attributed to affecting the fruit ripening stage and reflected in the yield in subsequent months. (Shanmuganathan et al., 2014). Above normal temperatur (DJF)- Elevated temperatures create favorable conditions for the proliferation and spread of pests, such as the notorious bagworms, aphids, and rhinoceros beetles. These pests can cause substantial damage to oil palm trees, reducing yields and increasing production costs (Pornsuriya et al., 2013, Pornsuriya et al., 2013, Abubakar et al., 2022). Above normal precipitation (DJF) - Excessive rainfall could lead to a reduction in FFB yields, a delay in the harvest and could result in the decay of FFB when left for an extended period of time (Goh et al., 2011).	Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Oil Palm Cultivation
					https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2452263523000022
					https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35260915/
SASCOF	Rice/Corn/Wheat	Rice
		June to September (JJAS): Plant, Mid-season October to December (OND): Plant, Harvest January to February (DJF): Plant, Harvest, Mid-season	Plant	Below normal temperature - Planting should begin when soil reaches 60 degrees. Soil temperatures of 55 or lower will result in emergence taking up to 30 days from planting or more. Above normal precipitation - When rice fields experience heavy rainfall, freshly seeded fields tend to have poor distribution, germination, and emergence. Heavy rainfall during planting or crop establishment is becoming an increasingly important problem as wet direct seeding spreads throughout Asia. Because of the nature of the problem it tends to be seasonal and cannot really be reliably predicted.	https://www.ricetec.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Planting-2016.pdf
					Heavy rainfall - IRRI Rice Knowledge Bank
			Mid-season	Above normal temperature - The most dangerous effect of increasing temperature is rice grain sterility. A very brief high temperature event (1–2 hours) at anthesis (flowering) can result in a large number of sterile pollen grains. Rice grain sterility increases when the spikelet temperature rises above 30 °C and complete sterility is reached at 36°C, especially under high relative humidity (Abeysiriwardena, Ohba and Maruyama, 2002; Weerakoon, Maruyama and Ohba, 2008). Below normal precipitaiton - Yala rice cultivation is water constrained, and carryover storage from the previous season is often used to determine the extent of planting (Zumbair, 2002).	https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-642-40455-9_120-1#Sec7
					https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/joc.714#:~:text=Yala%20rice%20production%20showed%20a%20significant%20relationship%20with,often%20used%20to%20determine%20the%20extent%20of%20planting.
			Plant	OND: Below normal temperature - The best temperature for Maha rice emergence is 25-30°C. Temperatures below 19°C are unfavorable for germination and below 12°C for emergence (Dananjaya et al., 2022). Below normal precipitaion - Reduced or delayed precipitation early in the Maha season can delay farmers' rice planting or increase irrigation water demand (Amarasingha et al., 2015). DJF: Below normal temperature - In boro season, early planting short varieties are affected by cold injurydury during seedling stage and reproductive phase (Islam and Morison, 1992). Below normal precipitation - Yield reduction of Boro rice is also associated with the changing in rainfall pattern at early period. The decreasing rainfall pattern of 3mm and 6mm also reduce the Boro rice yield as 4.0% and 9.3% on an average of five districts in Bangladesh (Hossain et al., 2016).	https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2149945/v1/87aa74d9-6774-4981-a0f2-447bb1d9623b.pdf?c=1665508652
					https://tar.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/tar.v26i2.8091
					Influence of solar radiation and temperature on irrigated rice grain yield in Bangladesh - ScienceDirect
					(PDF) Predicting the impacts of temperature and rainfall on Boro rice production in Bangladesh (researchgate.net)
			Mid-season	Below normal temperature - Frequently occuring low temperature causes more than 50% yield loss. Diseases such as blast and sheath brown rot adds to the damage especially when it attacks at the plant’s early vegetative stage. Below-normal precipitation - Water required for plants consist of water required for assimilation, transpiration consuming water, evaporation and field leakage. Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall during the growth period of crop requires supply of additional water for plant use.	https://www.irri.org/climate-smart-rice
					https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272872092_Rainfall_And_Water_Requirement_Of_Rice_During_Growing_Period/link/558d21b808ae1f30aa80dd84/download?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIn19
			Harvest	Above normal precipitation - The crop must be harvested while the soil is fairly dry as it is much easier to pick the crop close to the ground. Above-normal temperature - An increase in average temperature by 20 C will likely have strong negative effects on rice crop production.	How To Grow Rice: Planting, Care, & Harvesting Practices (eos.com)
					https://journalijecc.com/index.php/IJECC/article/view/4166#:~:text=Higher%20or%20lower%20temperatures%20than,to%20a%20decrease%20in%20yield.
		Corn
		June to September (JJAS): Harvest, Mid-season October to December (OND): Harvest, Plant January to February (DJF) : Harvest, Mid-season, Plant	Plant	Below normal temperature- Poor germination resulting from below normal temperatures is the greatest hazard of planting too early. Above normal precipitation - Planting into cool and wet soil conditions can expose the corn seed to a high stress that can potentially set the crop back further.	How Climate Affects Corn Production \| Agronomic Crops Network (osu.edu)
					Risks of Planting in Cool and Wet Conditions (prideseeds.com)
			Mid-season	JJAS: Above normal temperature - Maize is particularly vulnerable to heat stress during the reproductive stage, most of the sub-tropical maize-growing areas in South Asia are highly vulnerable to high temperature stress, particularly during the pre-monsoon season when maize is prone to severe heat stress during anthesis and early grain-filling stages. (Tesfaye et al., 2017). Below normal precipitation - In India, maize requires 500 to 600 mm of rainfall for at least good production. Approximately 80% of wet-season maize areas are rain-fed, where crops are susceptible to the erratic behavior of rains (Sah et al., 2020). DJF: Above normal temperature - A 0.7°F increase in the growing season temperature will decrease the corn production by about 12 bushels per acre. Above normal precipitation - Excessive rainfall, resulting in flooding and ponding of soils, may cause serious damage to a corn crop depending on its stage of development. The major stress caused by flooding and ponding is a lack of oxygen needed for the proper function of the root system. When plants are very small (prior to six-leaf collar stage), they generally are killed after about five or six days of submersion. Nutrient uptake is also reduced in soils saturated by excessive rainfall.	Climate change impacts and potential benefits of heat-tolerant maize in South Asia \| Theoretical and Applied Climatology (springer.com)
					Impact of water deficit stress in maize: Phenology and yield components \| Scientific Reports (nature.com)
					How Climate Affects Corn Production \| Agronomic Crops Network (osu.edu)
			Harvest	Above normal temperature- Both short and long duration heat stress is known to negatively impact reproductive processes and harvest index of cereals (Prasad et al., 2017) Nevertheless, it has been estimated that maize yield would reduce by 7.4% for every 1°C increase in temperature (Zhao et al., 2017). The optimum temperature for maize cultivation is 28 to 32°C, which is relatively higher than the optimum temperatures required for the production of other cereal crops (Arnold, 1974). Above normal precipitation- During the maturity and harvesting period, rainfall has negative impact on maintaining grain quality.	MaizeandclimatePB.pdf
					Maize and heat stress: Physiological, genetic, and molecular insights - Djalovic - 2024 - The Plant Genome - Wiley Online Library

		Wheat
		June to September (JJAS): Harvest, Planting October to December (OND): Planting January to February (DJF) : Mid-season, Planting	Planting	OND : Above normal temperature - High-temperature stress when occurred at germination and early establishment stages is known to decrease germination and seedling emergence leading to abnormal seedlings, poor vigor, and reduced overall growth of developing seedlings (Essemine et al., 2010, Kumar et al., 2018, Pittock et al., 2003). DJF : Above normal temperature - Intermittent spells of temperature >30°C during reproductive stage causes high temperature leading to decreased seed set and low grain number (Prasad et al., 2011, Ramadas et al., 2019, Sevanto, 2014). Above normal precipitation : March precipitation has the most severe impact on wheat yield (interfering with the post-anthesis stage).JJAS: Above normal temperature - High temperature affects germination, vegetative growth, tiller production, dry matter partitioning, reproductive organ development, reproductive processes (Prasad, Pisipati, Momčilović, & Ristic, 2011), grain filling (Sehgal et al., 2017), and grain quality (Britz et al., 2007). JJAS: Under normal precipitation - A low rainfall and low soil water content at sowing have negative impacts on germination process. Passioura (2006) OND :Under/Below normal precipitation - The study found that both excessive and insufficient precipitation led to a decline in productivity, with the impact varying by region (Azmat et al,)	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128160916000146
			Mid-season	Above normal temperature - Most of the wheat crop is cultivated under cooler winter conditions and has an optimal daytime growing temperature of 15°C during the reproductive stage. The climate change–driven high temperature stress in wheat is becoming a major constraint as it adversely impacts every crop growth stage. Anthesis and reproductive stages are the most sensitive growth stages affected by heat. (Karnam Venkatesh, 2022) Above normal precipitation - Future rainfall sequences at the preceding growing phases prominently decreased wheat yield, (Tataw et al., 2016). DJF : Above normal precipitation- Excess rainfall, together with less sunshine hours is associated with flooding, plant diseases and insect pest outbreaks, which have negative influences on the production and quality of winter wheat. Above normal temperature - Increase in average temperature reduces grain filling period due to accelerating the plant development rate (Sharma et al. 2008), Heavy rainfall pattern with low frequency of occurrence is altering the wheat production. (Swastika Subedi. 2022)	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128160916000146
			Harvest	Above normal temperature - High temperature during grain filling markedly decreases starch accumulation in wheat by altering the expression of starch-related genes leading to reduction in seed size in wheat (Dupont & Altenbach, 2003, Hurkuman et al., 2003). Above normal precipitation -	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128160916000146
					https://efcc.com.my/archives/1efcc2022/1efcc2022-68-71.pdf
NEACOF	Rice/ Corn/ Wheat	Wheat
		May to September : Harvest, Plant, October to , Novenber : Plant, Midterm, Harvest, December to April : Mid-seasons, Plant [Summer season(JJA), Winter Season(DJF)]	Plant	Above normal temperature- Wheat is highly susceptible to climate change, particularly to increased temperature, drought and humidity. Asseng et al. (2015) projected that an increase of 1 °C in temperature was likely to decrease wheat yields globally by 6%. Below normal precipitation - Water deficit during the yield formation period results in reduced grain weight and hot, dry and strong wind in combination with a water deficit during this period causes shriveling of grain. During the ripening period a drying-off period is often induced by discontinuing irrigations and water deficit during this period only has a slight effect on yield.	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837719302066
					https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/wheat/en/
			Mid-season	Above normal temperature - Extreme, high temperatures can cause shriveled and shrunken wheat kernels later in the season. Above - normal precipitation - Optimal production requires an adequate source of moisture availability during the growing season; however, too much precipitation can lead to yield losses from disease and root problems.	https://www.fao.org/4/y4011e/y4011e04.htm
			Harvest	Above normal temperature- Towards the end of the growing cycle higher temperatures constrain wheat(durum) yields and grain quality (Rharrabti et al., 2003). Droughts affect physiological, biochemical, and agronomic parameters Below normal precipitation - Vulnerability to drought increases over lifecycle, with heading, anthesis, and grain filling as critical stages	https://www-sciencedirect-com-ssl.libproxy.seoultech.ac.kr/science/article/pii/S2666916124000239
		Corn
		June to August: Mid-season, Harvest, Plant, September to November : Harvest, Mid-season, March to may : Plant, Mid-season [Summer season(JJA), Winter Season(DJF)]	Plant	Above normal temperature- Growing-season temperatures exceeding 30 ∘C can be detrimental to crop yield. Each additional degree above 30 ∘C during anthesis reduced crop yields by 0.5% and 2% in irrigated and rainfed fields, respectively. A high temperature at critical development stages may also deteriorate the quality of maize grains (Sieber et al., 2017). the most negative effects will be exposure to high temperatures during the pollination and grain-filling stages. Above normal precipitation - Excessive water can result in poor nutrient uptake and can lead to root diseases such as pythium or crown rot. In general, plants cannot tolerate more than 4 to 5 days of conditions where the soil is covered by water without showing symptoms of severe nutrient stress.	Evidence of sweet corn yield losses from rising temperatures - PMC (nih.gov)


					https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364128748_A_Review_on_Effects_of_Heat_Stress_on_Maize/link/633bef929cb4fe44f301288b/download?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIn19
					https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/61112
			Mid-season	Above normal precipitation - Excessive rainfall, resulting in flooding and ponding of soils, may cause serious injury to a corn crop depending on its stage of development. The major stress caused by flooding and ponding is a lack of oxygen needed for the proper function of the root system. (Claassen et al, 2017)	https://agcrops.osu.edu/node/4407#:~:text=Optimal%20temperatures%20for%20growth%20vary,62%20and%2074%20degrees%20Fahrenheit.
			Harvest	Above normal precipitation - Short term water stress and and drought as major factors affecting grain yield.	https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijrsas/v6-i9/5.pdf
		Barley
		[Summer season(JJA) :harvest or mid-season, Winter Season(DJF): mid-season]	Plant	Above normal temperature - Rising temperatures can lead to heat stress, reducing the crop’s ability to photosynthesize and resulting in decreased yields. Additionally, higher temperatures can lead to an increased incidence of pests and diseases, further impacting crop health and yield. Above normal precipitation - The crop’s production will be the most successful when the weather is cool and dry. As the seedlings grow, the soil should be slightly moist, not soaking wet. waterlogging drastically reduces barley yield (Liu et al. 2020; Manik et al. 2022).	Barley: Climate Change Threats to Barley Yield - HSAT
					Improving waterlogging tolerance of barley varieties - GRDC
					Growing Barley: How To Plant, Manage, And Harvest (eos.com)
			Mid-season	JJA : Above normal temperature, Above normal precipitation - Temperature and/or water stresses that hamper photosynthesis during the grain-fill period can result in arrested grain development (lower kernel weight) and in fewer kernels per spike. Crop water usage itself is a function of temperature, nearly doubling with a 20°F increase in temperature. DJF : Below normal precipitation -Drought during reproductive and grain-ﬁlling phases cause substantial yield reductions in wheat.(Muhammad Farooqet al. 2014) Above normal temperature - Most agronomic parameters related to reproductive development clearly showed that growth defects were triggered by the high temperature stress during the transition phase (Changheon Kim et al. 2024)	https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Katherine-Klink/publication/233917825_Climate_variability_and_the_productivity_of_barley_and_oats_in_Minnesota/links/0fcfd50ce97cfa8ada000000/Climate-variability-and-the-productivity-of-barley-and-oats-in-Minnesota.pdf
			Harvest	JJA : Below normal temperature - Winters are dangerous for the plants, and temperatures below 17°F (-8°C) will kill the stands. The yields should be harvested before the first frost. Below normal precipitation - Previous research has identified that especially precipitation close to harvest can reduce quality of wheat (Janic Bucheli, 2024)	https://academic.oup.com/qopen/article/4/1/qoae008/7624207?login=true
					https://eos.com/blog/growing-barley/
TPCF	Rice/ Corn/ Wheat	Rice
		June to September (JJAS): Planting, Mid-season, / December to February (DJF): Planting, Harvest	Plant	JJAS : Below normal temperature - The true answer is that planting should begin when soil reaches 60 degrees. Soil temperatures of 55 or lower will result in emergence taking up to 30 days from planting or more. Above normal precipitation - When rice fields experience heavy rainfall, freshly seeded fields tend to have poor distribution, germination, and emergence. Because of the nature of the problem it tends to be seasonal and cannot really be reliably predicted. DJF : Above normal precipitation - Heavy rainfall during planting or crop establishment is becoming an increasingly important problem as wet direct seeding spreads throughout Asia. Above/ Below normal temperature - In this regard, relatively low and high temperatures negatively impact the productivity of rice and wheat by affecting multiple physiological processes	https://www.ricetec.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Planting-2016.pdf
					https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/14/1/40
					Heavy rainfall - IRRI Rice Knowledge Bank
			Mid-season	JJAS : Above normal temperature - any historical analyses have indicated that decreased yields are often correlated with increased nighttime temperature during the growing season (Downey and Wells, 1975, Peng et al., 2004). Below normal precipitationa - delay in the onset of the monsoon rains can lead to a delay in the planting and harvesting of rice	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123876898000047
			Harvest	DJF : Above normal temperature - Temperature above 33ᵒC has led to the production decrement of rice in many places in the world (Arshad et al., 2017) Above/ Below normal precipitation - variation in rainfall has the negative impact on rice growth phases resulting in reduced rice production.	https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9834771/
		Corn
		June to September(JJAS): Planting, Mid-season, Harvest / December to February (DJF): planting, Mid-season	Plant	Below normal temperature- Poor germination resulting from below normal temperatures is the greatest hazard of planting too early. Above normal precipitation - Planting into cool and wet soil conditions can expose the corn seed to a high stress that can potentially set the crop back further.	How Climate Affects Corn Production \| Agronomic Crops Network (osu.edu)
					Risks of Planting in Cool and Wet Conditions (prideseeds.com)
			Mid-season	Above normal temperature - Maize is most sensitive to high temperatures after anthesis, affecting its yield more than any other environmental variation (Wang et al., 2019; Dong et al., 2021). And grain filling is a process by which assimilates from the post-anthesis photosynthesis and the pre-anthesis stored in the stem are translocated (Farooq et al., 2011), which will be affected by heat stress under the grain-filling stage directly or indirectly (Wang et al., 2019). During the grain filling period, heat stress can reduce the assimilated supply from shoot to grain, causing a reduction in grain yield (Lu et al., 2014; Qi et al., 2022). Above normal precipitation - Maize flourishes on well-drained soils and waterlogging should be avoided, particularly during the flowering (2) and yield formation (3) periods. Waterlogging during flowering (2) can reduce grain yields by 50 percent or more.	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969724008489#:~:text=Statistical%20regression%20and%20crop%20model,5%20%25%20reduction%20in%20maize%20yield.
					https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/maize/en/
			Harvest	Above normal temperature - High temperatures can cause heat stress and reduce corn yields (Chhogyel and Kumar., 2018). Above normal precipitation - Extreme rainfall may cause flash floods, landslides, and other disasters, destroying the corn crops (Waiba., 2024).	Climate change and potential impacts on agriculture in Bhutan: a discussion of pertinent issues \| Agriculture & Food Security \| Full Text (biomedcentral.com)
					(PDF) Analysis of Climate Change Effects on Agriculture in Bhutan (researchgate.net)
		Wheat
		June to September (JJAS): Plant, Mid-season, Harvest	Plant	Below normal temperature - Temperatures are lower at higher altitudes area, with small seasonal changes. Below normal temperature can cause delayed germination in wheat (Sharma et al., 2022). Below normal precipitation - Precipitation in the plateau region is usually sufficient for spring wheat but not sufficient for winter wheat, and insufficient precipitation can increase irrigation pressure or affect wheat growth (Song et al., 2019). Below normal temperature - Damage from frost is common in the mountainous regions of northern India, and winter wheat does not perform well at very low temperatures during the early planting period (Gupta and Kant, 2012). Below normal precipitation - In the mountainous regions of northern India, where wheat is mainly grown on rain-fed areas, the success of the crop depends largely on the residual moisture and rainfall distribution during the season. Sufficient moisture at the time of sowing ensures good growth of the crop and conversely, any occurrence of moisture stress results in poor germination (Gupta and Kant., 2012).	Agriculture \| Free Full-Text \| Impact of High Temperature on Germination, Seedling Growth and Enzymatic Activity of Wheat (mdpi.com)
					https://climatescience.ru/uploads/pubs/7/7c/7cb/7cbc78fbdfb4e4e70a80bffb38abb622.pdf
					Wheat Improvement in Northern Hills of India \| Agricultural Research (springer.com)
					Frontiers \| Investigating the impact of terminal heat stress on contrasting wheat cultivars: a comprehensive analysis of phenological, physiological, and biochemical traits (frontiersin.org)
			Mid-season	Above normal temperature - In some irrigated wheat areas, above normal temperatures during flowering will increase the risk of flower sterility and reduced grain yield (Sommer et al., 2013). Below normal precipitation - Reduced precipitation may exacerbate secondary salinization of soils due to poor irrigation/drainage management and a shallow and low salinity water table, affecting wheat cultivation (Sommer et al., 2013). Above normal temperature- According to Lawlor and Mitchell (2000), an increase of 1°C in temperature during grain filling reduces the harvest index and grain yield of wheat by a proportionate amount and shortens this period by 5%. Above normal precipitation- Optimal production requires an adequate source of moisture availability during the growing season; however, too much precipitation can lead to yield losses from disease and root problems.	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167880913002168


			Harvest	Above normal temperature - Wheat is highly susceptible to climate change, particularly to increased temperature, drought and humidity. Asseng et al. (2015) projected that an increase of 1 °C in temperature was likely to decrease wheat yields globally by 6%. Below normal precipitation - Water deficit during the yield formation period results in reduced grain weight and hot, dry and strong wind in combination with a water deficit during this period causes shrivelling of grain. During the ripening period a drying-off period is often induced by discontinuing irrigations and water deficit during this period only has a slight effect on yield.	https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837719302066
					Tobacco \| Land & Water \| Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations \| Land & Water \| Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (fao.org)